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Chapter 5. Through The Eyes Of Travellers Perceptions Of Society (C. Tenth To Seventeenth Century)
Throughout history, people have undertaken journeys for diverse reasons: seeking work, escaping disasters, engaging in trade, serving as soldiers or priests, going on pilgrimages, or simply for adventure. Upon arriving in a new place, travelers invariably encounter differences in the physical environment, customs, languages, beliefs, and practices of the local population.
While most travelers adapt, some, being more observant or having a specific purpose, record their observations, often noting what they find unusual or remarkable. Surviving travel accounts are varied in content, focusing on court affairs, religious matters, architecture, or social customs. Unfortunately, travel accounts left by women are practically non-existent, despite their participation in travel.
This chapter explores how travel accounts provide insights into the past, focusing on the perceptions of Indian society by three notable male travelers who visited the subcontinent between the 10th and 17th centuries: Al-Biruni (from Uzbekistan, 11th century), Ibn Battuta (from Morocco, 14th century), and François Bernier (from France, 17th century).
These travelers came from distinct social and cultural backgrounds, making them more attentive to everyday Indian activities and practices that local writers might have considered too routine to record. This difference in perspective makes their accounts particularly valuable for historians. Understanding who these travelers wrote for provides context for their observations.
Al-Biruni And The Kitab-Ul-Hind
Abu Raihan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni was a scholar born in 973 CE in Khwarizm (present-day Uzbekistan), a significant center of learning. He received an excellent education and was proficient in multiple languages, including Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit. Although he did not know Greek, he was familiar with Greek philosophy through Arabic translations.
From Khwarizm To The Punjab
In 1017, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Khwarizm and took Al-Biruni, along with other scholars, back to his capital, Ghazni. Al-Biruni arrived as a hostage but eventually developed an affection for Ghazni, where he lived until his death at age 70.
It was in Ghazni that Al-Biruni's interest in India grew. This interest was facilitated by earlier translations of Sanskrit works on astronomy, mathematics, and medicine into Arabic (from the 8th century). When Punjab became part of the Ghaznavid empire, increased contact fostered an environment of trust and understanding with the local population.
Al-Biruni spent years studying Sanskrit and Indian religious and philosophical texts in the company of Brahmana priests and scholars. While his exact travel route in India is unclear, he likely traveled extensively in Punjab and parts of northern India.
Travel literature was already an established genre in Arabic writing at that time, covering regions from the Sahara to the Volga River. This context meant Al-Biruni's work on India could reach a wider audience outside the subcontinent.
Translating texts, sharing ideas: Al-Biruni's command of multiple languages allowed him to translate texts between them. He translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic, including Patanjali's work on grammar. In turn, he translated works of Greek mathematician Euclid into Sanskrit for his Brahmana friends.
Al-Biruni’s objectives: Al-Biruni stated his work was intended to aid those who wished to discuss religious questions with Hindus and to serve as a source of information for those associating with them. This indicates his goals were to provide a resource for cross-cultural understanding and interaction based on scholarly inquiry.
Source 1: Al-Biruni’s stated objectives for his work on India.
Al-Biruni described his work as: "a help to those who want to discuss religious questions with them (the Hindus), and as a repertory of information to those who want to associate with them."
Answer:
Reading excerpts from Al-Biruni's work, such as his detailed description of the caste system derived from Sanskritic texts and his attempts to compare Indian practices with those in other cultures, suggests that his work did meet these objectives. By explaining Indian religious ideas (from his study of texts) and social customs, he provided material for both religious discussion and practical association with people in India. His detailed chapters on various aspects of Indian life would serve as a "repertory of information" for those wanting to understand and interact with the local population, fulfilling his stated aims.
The Kitab-Ul-Hind
Al-Biruni's most famous work on India is the Kitab-ul-Hind (Book of India), written in Arabic. It is noted for its simple and clear style (lucid).
The Kitab-ul-Hind is a comprehensive text, organized into 80 chapters covering a wide array of subjects related to India, including its religion and philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, weights and measures, iconography, laws, and metrology (science of measurement).
Al-Biruni typically adopted a distinctive structure for each chapter: starting with a question, followed by a description based on Sanskritic traditions (texts), and concluding with comparisons to other cultures he was familiar with. This methodical and predictable structure may reflect his background in mathematics.
Al-Biruni likely intended his work for an audience outside India, especially those living near the subcontinent's borders. He was familiar with existing Arabic translations and adaptations of Indian texts but aimed to provide a more systematic and accurate account, sometimes criticizing how earlier texts were written.
Metrology: The science of measurement.
Hindu: The term "Hindu" originated from an Old Persian word (c. 6th-5th centuries BCE) referring to the region east of the river Sindhu (Indus). Arabs continued this usage, calling the region "al-Hind" and its people "Hindi." Later, Turks used "Hindu" for people east of the Indus, "Hindustan" for the land, and "Hindavi" for the language. Initially, these terms were geographical or cultural markers and did not denote a specific religious identity; the term acquired religious connotations much later.
Ibn Battuta’S Rihla
Ibn Battuta was a Moroccan traveler born in Tangier in 1304 into a family respected for their knowledge of Islamic religious law (shari‘a). He received a literary and scholastic education but valued knowledge gained through travel and experience more than that from books.
An Early Globe-Trotter
Ibn Battuta loved traveling and embarked on extensive journeys, exploring diverse lands and peoples. Before his arrival in India in 1332-33, he had already performed pilgrimage to Mecca and traveled widely across Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman, and parts of East Africa.
Traveling overland through Central Asia, he reached Sind in 1333. Having heard of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the Sultan of Delhi, known for his generosity towards scholars, Ibn Battuta proceeded to Delhi via Multan and Uch.
The Sultan was impressed by his learning and appointed him the qazi (judge) of Delhi, a position he held for several years. After a period of imprisonment due to a misunderstanding, he was reinstated and in 1342 was ordered to go to China as the Sultan's envoy to the Mongol ruler.
For this mission, Ibn Battuta traveled through central India to the Malabar coast. From there, he visited the Maldives, where he served as qazi for 18 months, before continuing to Sri Lanka. He returned to the Malabar coast and Maldives again and also visited Bengal and Assam before taking a ship from Sumatra to the Chinese port of Zaytun (Quanzhou).
He traveled extensively within China, reaching as far as Beijing, before deciding to return home in 1347. His extensive travels and detailed account are often compared to those of Marco Polo, another famous traveler to Asia.
Ibn Battuta meticulously recorded his observations about the cultures, peoples, beliefs, and values he encountered. His travels in the 14th century were arduous and perilous, often taking many days or months between major cities. For instance, the journey from Multan to Delhi took 40 days, and from Sind to Delhi about 50 days.
Source 2: Excerpt from the Rihla on Ibn Battuta's departure from Tangier.
Describes his solitary departure from Tangier, birthplace, at age 22. Had no fellow traveller or caravan, motivated by strong impulse and long-held desire to visit sanctuaries (Mecca). Resolved to leave all dear ones and home, like a bird forsakes its nest. Returned home in 1354, ~30 years after setting out.
Answer:
The excerpt highlights Ibn Battuta's profound sense of loneliness and homesickness during his travels. Despite being attacked by robbers and facing illness, the emotional difficulty of being alone in a new place, surrounded by unfamiliar people, was deeply affecting for him. He describes being "so sad at heart on account of my loneliness that I could not restrain the tears that started to my eyes, and wept bitterly," indicating the significant emotional toll that traveling alone and being far from home could take, even for an experienced and adventurous traveler like him. This provides a humanizing glimpse into the challenges faced by early travelers beyond the physical dangers.
Travel was also insecure due to highway robbers. Ibn Battuta was attacked multiple times and preferred traveling in caravans for safety, though this did not always guarantee protection. His caravan was attacked while traveling from Multan to Delhi, resulting in deaths and severe injuries to survivors, including himself.
The “Enjoyment Of Curiosities”
Upon his return to Morocco after decades of extensive travel, the local ruler instructed that Ibn Battuta's travel stories be recorded. These dictations were compiled into his book, the Rihla.
Source 3: Excerpt from Ibn Juzayy's introduction to the Rihla, describing the ruler's directive and the narrative's content.
Ruler directed Ibn Battuta to dictate account of cities seen, interesting events remembered, rulers, learned men, pious saints met. Narrative intended to entertain mind, delight ears/eyes with variety of curious particulars (edification) and marvellous things (arouse interest).
Answer:
The excerpt reveals that the ruler commissioned the Rihla with specific objectives, focusing on capturing the novelty and remarkable aspects of Ibn Battuta's experiences. This directive shaped the content and style of the Rihla, ensuring it would be filled with descriptions of "curious particulars" and "marvellous things" encountered in distant lands. These elements were intended to entertain and impress the audience, providing not just factual information but also accounts that would appeal to their sense of wonder and curiosity about the world beyond their own borders. This suggests that the audience for the Rihla likely valued exotic and fascinating descriptions, leading Ibn Battuta (or the writer recording his words) to highlight such aspects of his travels.
In the footsteps of Ibn Battuta: Between 1400 and 1800, many visitors to India wrote travelogues in Persian, often influenced by earlier writers like Al-Biruni and Ibn Battuta. Some Indian travelers also wrote about their experiences abroad in Central Asia, Iran, and the Ottoman Empire. These accounts provide diverse perspectives on India, viewed as a land of wonders by some (like Mahmud Wali Balkhi, who briefly lived as a sanyasi) and disappointing by others (like Shaikh Ali Hazin, who expected lavish treatment).
François Bernier A Doctor With A Difference
Following the arrival of the Portuguese in India around 1500, numerous European travelers visited the subcontinent and wrote detailed accounts. Early Portuguese writers described social customs and religious practices (e.g., Duarte Barbosa) and some even translated Indian texts (e.g., Jesuit Roberto Nobili).
After 1600, increasing numbers of Dutch, English, and French travelers arrived. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a famous French jeweller, traveled to India multiple times, particularly interested in trade conditions. Some travelers, like Italian doctor Manucci, settled permanently in India.
François Bernier, a Frenchman, was a doctor, political philosopher, and historian. He came to the Mughal Empire seeking opportunities and lived in India for 12 years (1656-1668). He served as a physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, Emperor Shah Jahan's eldest son, and later associated with Armenian noble Danishmand Khan as an intellectual and scientist.
Comparing “East” And “West”
Bernier traveled to various parts of India and wrote accounts based on his observations. A defining characteristic of his writing is the frequent comparison and contrast between what he saw in India and the situation in Europe, particularly France. He often presented India in a negative light, describing it as a bleak situation compared to European developments. While his assessment was not always accurate, his published works gained immense popularity in Europe.
Source 4: Excerpt from Bernier’s description of travelling with the Mughal army.
Bernier describes requirements for travelling with army: 2 good Turkoman horses, powerful Persian camel/driver, groom, servant with water flask (local custom). Provides useful articles: moderate tent, carpet, portable bed, pillow, mattress, leather tablecloths, napkins, 3 small bags culinary utensils (in large bag), strong double sack/net for provisions/linen/apparel (master/servants). Stocks excellent rice, sweet biscuits, limes, sugar. Also linen bag/iron hook for suspending/draining dahi (curds), considered refreshing with lemonade.
Answer:
Based on Bernier's list, things one might take on a journey today that are similar include a tent, carpet, bed/sleeping mat, pillow, mattress, clothes/linen, cooking utensils, and food provisions (like rice, biscuits, sugar, limes). However, some items are different due to modern technology and context: instead of horses and camels (for personal travel and carrying goods), one would use motor vehicles or trains; instead of a groom and servant with a water flask, modern travelers might use personal vehicles, bottled water, or rely on public services. The "portable bed made of four very strong but light canes" and "round leather table-cloths" are also less common today compared to modern portable furniture. The linen bag/hook for draining dahi is specific to traditional food preparation not typically done while traveling now. Overall, while the basic needs for travel (shelter, transport, food, supplies) are similar, the specific items and ways of fulfilling them reflect the technological and social differences between the 17th century and today.
Bernier's works were published in France (1670-71) and quickly translated into several European languages, reprinted multiple times, demonstrating their significant influence. In contrast, accounts in Arabic and Persian typically circulated as manuscripts and were not widely published in Europe before 1800.
Creation and circulation of ideas about India: European travelers' writings shaped the image of India for European audiences through publication. Later, Indian visitors to Europe (like Shaikh Itisamuddin and Mirza Abu Talib after 1750) wrote their own accounts to counter these European perceptions and present their perspective on Indian society.
Making Sense Of An Alien World Al-Biruni And The Sanskritic Tradition
Travelers faced the challenge of understanding alien cultures. Al-Biruni's approach to understanding India involved grappling with several perceived barriers.
Overcoming Barriers To Understanding
Al-Biruni identified three main obstacles to comprehending Indian society:
- Language: He found Sanskrit vastly different from Arabic and Persian, making direct translation and understanding of ideas difficult.
- Religious Beliefs and Practices: Differences in religious traditions presented another significant barrier.
- Insularity: He perceived the local population as self-absorbed and unwilling to share knowledge, which he saw as obstructing understanding.
A language with an enormous range: Al-Biruni described Sanskrit as difficult to learn due to its vast vocabulary and complex inflections, comparing it to Arabic. He noted that one thing can have various names, and one word can have multiple meanings, requiring qualifying words for clarity. He concluded, "God knows best!" about the difficulties.
Answer:
This description conveys Al-Biruni's scholarly appreciation for the complexity and richness of the Sanskrit language. His comparison to Arabic highlights his attempt to relate the unfamiliar structure of Sanskrit to a language he knew well, illustrating the challenges of translation between two complex languages. His final exclamation, "God knows best!", likely reflects his humble acknowledgment of the immense difficulty in fully mastering such a vast and nuanced language system, rather than expressing doubt in the language itself. It emphasizes the depth of the linguistic barrier he faced.
Despite these acknowledged barriers, Al-Biruni primarily relied on studying Sanskritic traditions, often citing passages from major Brahmanical texts (Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, Patanjali, Manusmriti) to explain Indian society, particularly the caste system.
God knows best!: When told about a wooden idol supposedly lasting for over 200,000 years, Al-Biruni expressed skepticism based on logic (wood decaying in a wet climate), concluding "God knows best!", showing his critical thinking even when faced with extraordinary claims.
Al-Biruni’S Description Of The Caste System
Al-Biruni attempted to explain the Indian caste system (varnas) by finding similar social divisions in other cultures, like ancient Persia, which he described as having four categories: knights/princes, monks/priests/lawyers, physicians/astronomers/scientists, and peasants/artisans. He used this parallel to suggest that social stratification was not unique to India.
He also contrasted the caste system with the concept of equality within Islam, where status differed only by piety.
Despite accepting the Brahmanical description of the varna system based on creation myths, Al-Biruni strongly disapproved of the notion of pollution. He argued that in nature, things regain purity (sun cleans air, salt purifies water), making the concept of social pollution within the caste system contrary to natural laws.
Source 5: Al-Biruni’s account of the system of varnas.
Highest caste: Brahmana, from head of Brahman (nature), choice part of mankind. Next: Kshatriya, from shoulders/hands of Brahman, degree not much below Brahmana. After them: Vaishya, from thigh of Brahman. Shudra: from feet of Brahman. Little distance between Vaishya/Shudra. All live mixed together in same towns/villages/houses.
Answer:
Comparing Al-Biruni's account with Source 6, Chapter 3 (the Rigveda's Purusha sukta verse): Both describe the origin of the four varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) emanating from different parts of a primeval being (Purusha/Brahman), specifically the head, arms, thighs, and feet. This shows Al-Biruni accurately reflected the Brahmanical creation myth explaining the varna hierarchy based on his study of Sanskrit texts. However, Al-Biruni's account also includes an important observation not typically found in normative texts: that despite the differences in caste, people "live together in the same towns and villages, mixed together in the same houses and lodgings." This observation suggests that Al-Biruni did not depend *only* on Sanskritic texts. He combined information from these texts (normative description) with his own field observations (real-life practice) of how people actually lived together, providing a more nuanced picture than the texts alone. This indicates he used both textual study and direct observation to understand Indian society, even if his description of the system's structure was heavily influenced by the texts.
Al-Biruni's description, heavily influenced by Brahmanical texts, presented the caste system as rigid. However, real-life practices were more flexible; for instance, groups like antyaja (born outside the system) provided inexpensive labor and were included in economic networks despite social oppression, a detail not fully captured by focusing only on the textual norms.
Ibn Battuta And The Excitement Of The Unfamiliar
By the 14th century, India was well-integrated into a global communication network. Ibn Battuta, arriving during this period, found Indian cities vibrant and full of opportunities. He highlighted elements that were novel and exciting to his audience, aiming to impress them with descriptions of distant but accessible worlds.
The Coconut And The Paan
Ibn Battuta described the coconut and the paan in detail because these were entirely unfamiliar in his native Morocco and West Asia. He used comparative descriptions to help his readers visualize these new products.
Source 6: Ibn Battuta’s description of the coconut.
Describes coconut trees looking exactly like date-palms except for fruit. Nut resembles man's head with "two eyes and a mouth." Inside when green looks like "brain." Fibre like "hair." Cords made from fibre to sew ships instead of iron nails, also cables for vessels.
Answer:
Ibn Battuta compares the coconut tree to a date-palm, which his audience would know, to give an initial idea of its appearance. He compares the coconut nut itself to a "man's head" (eyes, mouth, hair-like fibre) and the green inside to a "brain." These comparisons are intended to make the unfamiliar fruit relatable by using analogies to human anatomy and a known tree (date-palm). While perhaps striking, comparing the inside to a "brain" is a functional, not descriptive, analogy. He conveys a sense of the fruit being unusual by emphasizing these specific resemblances ("most peculiar trees," "most astonishing in habit") and describing the unexpected uses of its fibre (cords/cables for ships instead of metal). His description of the tree resembling a date-palm is generally accurate from a distance, and the uses of the fibre were accurate for the time. His description of the nut's appearance is also a creative way to describe the features around the base. The overall accuracy is reasonable given the goal was likely to convey novelty and key characteristics/uses rather than scientific precision.
Source 7: Ibn Battuta’s description of the paan.
Describes betel cultivated like grape-vine, grown only for leaves, no fruit. Manner of use: take areca nut (like nutmeg, broken into pellets), place in mouth, chew. Then take betel leaves, add a little chalk, masticate with betel.
Answer:
This attracted Ibn Battuta's attention likely because it was a widespread practice in India involving plants and methods completely unknown to his audience in his region. The cultivation technique (like a grape-vine) and the specific components (betel leaf, areca nut, chalk) and the process of chewing them together would have been highly novel and curious. It represents a unique cultural and social practice related to consumption. Things one could add to this description (from modern knowledge) include the stimulating effect of chewing paan, its role in social rituals, the variety of additions (spices, tobacco), and its potential health impacts.
Ibn Battuta And Indian Cities
Ibn Battuta viewed Indian cities as centers of opportunity, densely populated and prosperous despite occasional disruptions. He described cities like Delhi and Daulatabad as vast and populous.
Source 8: Excerpt from Ibn Battuta’s account of Delhi.
Describes Delhi as wide area, large population. Rampart round city parallel-less, 11 cubits breadth, houses inside for night sentry/gatekeepers. Store-houses for edibles, magazines, ammunition, siege machines inside ramparts; grains stored long without rotting. Horsemen/infantry move inside rampart from end to end. Rampart pierced by windows for light towards city. Lower part stone, upper brick. Many towers. 28 gates (darwaza), Budaun gate greatest. Mandwi gate near grain market. Gul gate near orchard. Fine cemetery with graves having domes/arches, planted with flowers blooming all seasons.
Answer:
Ibn Battuta noted architectural features primarily related to the city's fortifications and urban planning: the rampart's structure (width, material - stone lower, brick upper, towers, windows), internal structures within the rampart (houses, store-houses, magazines), the number and names of gates, the presence of specific markets (grain market) and orchards near gates, and architectural features in the cemetery (domes, arches on graves) and its landscaping (flowers blooming all seasons). These indicate his attention to defensive structures, urban layout, functional areas, and funerary architecture.
Comparing this description with Figs 5.8 and 5.9: Fig 5.8 shows an arch in Tughlakabad fortifications, which aligns with his mention of arches in the cemetery and implicitly in city gates/structures. Fig 5.9 shows part of a fortification wall. These illustrations visually support his descriptions of stone and brick construction and defensive architecture of Delhi's fortifications.
Bazaars were vibrant centers of economic, social, and cultural life, housing mosques, temples, and spaces for performances. Ibn Battuta's account suggests that towns prospered by appropriating surplus from villages.
He noted India's productive agriculture (two crops/year) and integration into inter-Asian trade networks. Indian manufactures, especially textiles (cotton, muslins, silks, etc.), were highly sought after, bringing profits to artisans and merchants. Fine muslins were particularly expensive, worn only by nobles.
Source 9: Ibn Battuta’s description of the music market in Daulatabad (Tarababad).
Describes Tarababad as great, beautiful bazaar for male/female singers in Daulatabad. Numerous shops with doors leading to owner's house. Shops decorated with carpets, swing in center for female singer (adorned, attended). Large cupola in middle, chief musician sits Thursdays after dawn prayers with staff. Female singers perform before him until dusk. Mosques in bazaar. Hindu rulers stopped at cupola, female singers performed. Some Muslim rulers did same.
Answer:
Ibn Battuta highlighted these activities because they represent the vibrant cultural and social life integrated within the economic space of the market (bazaar). This scene would be very exotic and interesting to his audience, showcasing not just trade but also entertainment, social hierarchy (chief musician, adorned singer, attendants, rulers stopping), and religious presence (mosques, temples mentioned generally in bazaars). It paints a picture of a lively, prosperous urban environment where different aspects of life converged in the marketplace, making the account entertaining and full of "curious particulars" as intended.
A Unique System Of Communication
Ibn Battuta was particularly impressed by the state's efforts to support merchants and the efficiency of the postal system. Trade routes were equipped with inns and guest houses. The postal system facilitated sending information, remitting credit, and even dispatching goods quickly over long distances.
Source 10: Ibn Battuta’s description of the postal system in India.
Two kinds: horse-post (uluq), royal horses every 4 miles. Foot-post (dawa), 3 stations per mile (1/3 mile). Dawa villages well-populated, 3 pavilions outside with men ready. Each carries 2-cubit rod with copper bells. Courier from city runs fast with letter/rod. Pavilion men hear bell, get ready. Courier reaches, one takes letter, runs shaking rod to next dawa. Process repeats to destination. Foot-post quicker than horse-post, used for transporting desirable Khurasan fruits to India.
Answer:
The foot-post system, as described by Ibn Battuta, could likely have operated throughout the subcontinent in well-populated areas with established routes and communication networks. The need for a "well-populated village" every third of a mile suggests it depended on a sufficiently dense and settled population along the routes to maintain the stations and runners. It would be less feasible in sparsely populated, heavily forested, or difficult mountainous terrain. The system's efficiency relies on the frequent presence of runners ready at short intervals, enabled by settled communities.
Bernier And The “Degenerate” East
François Bernier's perspective differed from Ibn Battuta's. As a political philosopher, he focused on comparing India with Europe (particularly France), often emphasizing what he saw as India's shortcomings or "degenerate" state, aiming to influence European ideas and policies. His work "Travels in the Mughal Empire" reflects detailed observations and critical insights, placing Mughal India within a universal framework but often highlighting its perceived inferiority.
The Question Of Landownership
Bernier identified the perceived lack of private property in land in Mughal India as a fundamental difference from Europe and a major cause of India's problems. He believed the emperor owned all land and distributed it to nobles, leading to disastrous consequences:
- Landholders (nobles) had no hereditary rights, so they were unwilling to invest long-term in improving land.
- This caused agriculture to decline, leading to excessive oppression of the peasantry and falling living standards for all except the ruling aristocracy.
This view of crown land ownership and its negative effects was common among European travelers of the time.
Source 11: Excerpt from Bernier’s description of the peasantry in the countryside.
Describes Hindustan empire vast tracts mostly sand/mountains, badly cultivated, thinly populated. Portion of good land untilled lacking laborers (many perish bad treatment from Governors). Poor people unable to discharge demands of rapacious lords lose subsistence, children taken as slaves. Peasantry in despair from excessive tyranny abandon country.
Answer:
According to Bernier, the problems faced by peasants included: living in poorly cultivated/populated tracts, lack of laborers (due to bad treatment), being deprived of means of subsistence by "rapacious lords" (Governors/nobles), losing their children who were taken as slaves, and being driven to despair by "excessive tyranny" which led them to abandon their land/villages. Yes, this description would have served to strengthen his case for the negative consequences of crown land ownership. He directly links the oppression and misery of the peasantry and the abandonment of land to the system where land is held by temporary "Governors" (nobles) who, lacking long-term investment incentive (due to non-hereditary tenure), exploit the land and peasants excessively for immediate gain. This aligns with his argument that lack of private, hereditary ownership leads to ruin and tyranny.
Bernier used this description to warn Europe against adopting a similar model, arguing it would lead to ruined kingdoms, cities, and fields, populated by beggars and barbarians. His view influenced concepts like oriental despotism (Montesquieu) and the Asiatic mode of production (Karl Marx), portraying Asian rulers with absolute authority over subjugated, impoverished populations, and autonomous but stagnant village communities.
Source 12: Bernier’s warning for Europe against following the Mughal model.
Warns if European kings follow Mughal model, kingdoms would be far from well-cultivated, peopled, built, rich, polite, flourishing. Says European kings better/royally served. Would become kings of deserts, solitudes, beggars, barbarians like Mughals represented. Great cities/boroughs uninhabitable (ill air), ruin. Hillocks abandoned, fields overspread (bushes/marshes).
Answer:
Bernier depicts a scenario of doom for European kingdoms if they adopt the Mughal model by painting a stark contrast between his idealized view of flourishing European societies and his highly critical portrayal of the Mughal Empire. He warns that such kingdoms would regress, becoming poorly cultivated, depopulated ("kings of deserts and solitudes, of beggars and barbarians"), their cities ruined and unhealthy ("because of ill air"), and their countryside neglected and unproductive ("overspread with bushes, or fill'd with pestilential marishes"). He uses these vivid negative images of stagnation, decay, and poverty to underscore the perceived disastrous consequences of the Mughal system (rooted in his view of crown land ownership) and implicitly advocate for maintaining the European model (with private property) as superior and essential for prosperity and civility.
However, Mughal documents (like Abu'l Fazl's account of land revenue as remuneration for sovereignty) and historical evidence (Chapter 8 on rural society showing differentiation) contradict Bernier's oversimplified picture of crown ownership and uniform rural poverty.
A More Complex Social Reality
Despite his bias, Bernier's account occasionally hints at a more complex reality. While claiming artisans lacked incentive due to state appropriation and manufactures were declining, he also noted India exported vast quantities of manufactures for precious metals. He observed a prosperous merchant community engaged in long-distance trade, contradicting his "no middle state" assertion.
Source 13: Bernier’s description of agriculture and craft production, highlighting Bengal’s fertility and variety of manufactures.
Notes large portion of Hindustan fertile (Bengal surpasses Egypt in rice, corn, necessities, and articles of commerce like silks, cotton, indigo). Many parts abundant population, land well-tilled. Artisan compelled by necessity/otherwise manufactures carpets, brocades, embroideries, gold/silver cloths, silk/cotton goods (used in country/exported). Gold/silver circulate globally but end up swallowed/lost in Hindustan.
Answer:
The description in this excerpt differs from that in Source 11 (The poor peasant) in significant ways. Source 11 depicts a scenario of widespread rural poverty, oppression, land abandonment, and lack of laborers due to mistreatment, painting a bleak picture of agriculture and peasant life. In contrast, Source 13 describes vast tracts of *extremely fertile* land (mentioning Bengal surpassing Egypt), areas with *abundant population* and land that is *pretty well tilled*. It also details a wide range of complex and valuable *manufactures* produced by artisans (carpets, brocades, embroideries, fine cloths), explicitly stating these are used locally *or exported abroad*, contradicting the idea of universal decline in manufactures due to lack of incentive. Furthermore, it notes the large inflow of gold and silver into India due to these exports. Source 11 supports Bernier's argument about agricultural ruin and peasant misery under crown ownership, while Source 13 presents a counter-picture of significant agricultural productivity, widespread cultivation, vibrant craft production, and successful export trade, indicating economic activity and wealth that challenges his overall negative assessment of the "degenerate" East.
About 15% of the population lived in towns in the 17th century, higher than in Western Europe then. Bernier's "camp towns" description was an oversimplification; India had diverse towns (manufacturing, trading, ports, sacred centers), reflecting prosperous merchant communities (mahajans, nagarsheth) and professional classes (physicians, teachers, lawyers, painters, musicians, calligraphers).
Source 14: Bernier’s account of imperial karkhanas (workshops).
Describes large halls (karkhanas/workshops) for artisans. Different halls for embroiderers, goldsmiths, painters, varnishers, joiners, turners, tailors, shoe-makers, silk/brocade/muslin manufacturers. Artisans work whole day, return home. Describes their time as gliding away quietly, no one aspiring for improvement in condition born into.
Answer:
Bernier conveys a sense that although there was considerable activity and skill demonstrated in the karkhanas (evidenced by the variety of crafts and products listed), there was little *progress* or social mobility by describing the artisans' lives as following a "quiet regular manner" where their time "glides away." He explicitly states, "no one aspiring for any improvement in the condition of life wherein he happens to be born." This implies a lack of ambition, innovation, or opportunity for advancement within the system, portraying it as a stagnant, unchanging structure where artisans are simply routine laborers rather than dynamic individuals with potential for upward mobility or significant personal gain beyond their daily work. This reinforces his overall thesis about the oppressive and static nature of Indian society compared to Europe, where he believed private property and individual aspiration drove progress.
Women Slaves, Sati And Labourers
Travelers often showed interest in the condition of women. Slavery was common and taken for granted, with slaves (male and female) sold in markets and given as gifts (e.g., Ibn Battuta's accounts). There was differentiation among slaves; some female slaves in the Sultan's service were skilled musicians and dancers, while others served as spies or domestic laborers. Domestic female slaves were numerous and relatively inexpensive. They were used for tasks including carrying people in palanquins.
Source 15: Ibn Battuta on slave women.
Emperor keeps spying slaves with nobles. Appoints female scavengers entering houses unannounced; slave girls tell them information. Most female slaves captured in raids/expeditions. Some female slaves (Sultan's service) experts music/dance. Female slaves spy on nobles for Sultan. Generally used domestic labor. Ibn Battuta found indispensable for carrying people on palanquins/dola. Price of female domestic slaves very low; most families who could afford had 1-2.
Answer:
This excerpt details several aspects of the lives and roles of slave women in 14th-century India as observed by Ibn Battuta. It shows they were obtained through various means, including capture in military actions. Their roles varied significantly based on their skills and the status of their owner: some were skilled performers (musicians, dancers), others were used in intelligence gathering (spying on nobles), and many were employed in domestic tasks, including the physically demanding job of carrying people in palanquins. The low price and common ownership by families indicate that domestic slavery was widespread and economically accessible to a broad segment of the population who could afford even a few slaves. This illustrates the diverse functions and prevalence of female slavery within society.
European travelers, like Bernier, often highlighted practices they saw as markers of difference, such as sati (widow immolation), which Bernier described in detail, noting instances where women seemed willing and others where they were forced. His account of a child sati is particularly poignant.
Source 16: Bernier’s description of a child sati in Lahore.
Saw beautiful young widow (12 years max) sacrificed in Lahore. Little creature more dead than alive approaching pit, trembled, wept bitterly. 3-4 Brahmanas/old woman forced unwilling victim, seated on wood, tied hands/feet lest she run away. Burnt alive. Bernier found it hard to repress feelings/rage.
Answer:
Bernier's description of the child sati emphasizes the brutality and coercion involved in the practice, particularly in this case where the victim was very young and visibly terrified. He highlights the physical force used ("forced the unwilling victim," "tied her hands and feet") by Brahmanas and an old woman to compel her to die. This contradicts any notion that the practice was always a voluntary act of devotion and underscores the horrific nature of forcing a young, unwilling individual onto the pyre. His personal reaction ("difficult to repress my feelings," "rage") reveals his strong condemnation of the practice, framing it as a barbaric act of violence against an innocent girl, used to shock his European audience and highlight the perceived cruelty and degradation of women in Indian society.
However, women's lives encompassed much more than practices like sati. Their labor was essential in agriculture and other production. Women from merchant families participated in business and even legal matters. Evidence suggests women were not necessarily confined to private spaces.
Travelers' accounts offer glimpses but are shaped by their backgrounds and biases. They often missed aspects of social life they weren't looking for. Experiences of Indians who traveled abroad are less documented but represent another perspective on cross-cultural encounters.
The sculptures depict various modes of transport, including bullock carts, possibly horses being ridden or led, and figures being carried in some form (perhaps palanquins or on shoulders), representing common ways people traveled in the period.
Answer in 100-150 words
Questions requiring short essay answers based on concepts and evidence discussed in the chapter.
Write a short essay (about 250-300 words) on the following:
Questions requiring more detailed essay answers on specific themes, using evidence from the chapter.
Map work
Map-based activity related to the travels described in the chapter.
Projects (choose one)
Suggestions for independent research or interview-based projects related to travel, perception, or comparisons between past and present.
If you would like to know more, read:
Suggestions for further reading on the topic.
For more information, you could visit:
Suggestions for online resources.
Credits for Illustrations
List of sources for the images used in the chapter.